Machiavelli, Shakespeare, and the Rape of Lucrece: Research Notes 3; Comedy & Tragedy of Machiavelli
Essays on the Literary Works, edited by Vickie B. Sullivan
Introduction
Some scholars see Machiavelli as having a tragic view of life where fortune has the final say: Hanna Pitkin, Wayne A. Rebhorn, Giorgio Barberi-Squarotti. p. xii
This view is rejected by Leo Strauss and Harvey Mansfield, who see him as ushering in "new modes and orders" of modernity. p. xiii
Because Machiavelli does not recognize the invulnerability of superhuman forces that can render human life tragic and because he teachers others to scoff at high moral claims, the denial of tragedy brings a hopeful - even comedic - aspect not only to his lighter works but to his political works as well. Strauss declares that "the spirit of comedy, not to say levity, is not absent from his two most serious books" p. xiii
[Note 18: Strauss p. 40]
Strauss, Thoughts on Machiavelli, p. 40:
Gravity and levity are combined in the Discourses and the Prince, as they were in Machiavelli himself [see his letter to Vettori, 13 Jan 1514, note 46]:
If it is true that every complete society necessarily recognizes something about which it is absolutely forbidden to laugh [note 47 - Nietszche], we may say that the determination to transgress that prohibition sanza alcuno rispetto, is of the essence of Machiavelli's intention. p. 40
Nietzsche, The Gay Science: https://philoslugs.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/the-gay-science-friedrich-nietzsche.pdf
Machiavelli encourages this divergence of view in Discourses 2.5. p. xiv
1. The Cuckold in Mandragola, by Harvey Mansfield
...as the play proceeds, it subordinates Callimaco to the childless couple and makes his desire a means to the realization of theirs. At the end both he and they get what they want. But at the beginning, Lucrezia too is prevented by the moral law against adultery from having a child by going outside her marriage for the insemination. She is persuaded that the good end of having a child excuses the evil means by which it is got. Having a child is more serious and reputable than merely making a conquest; so Callimaco's lighthearted ambition is justified by an end outside itself. The question, then, in the Mandragola is not whether we have the strength to hold to morality in a difficult situation, but whether we should even try to do so. In the play Machiavelli suggests that we have neither the strength nor the obligation. And instead of restating the opposition of love to morality, he offers a reconciliation between them. p. 3
Livy's Rape of Lucretia: her sacrifice = inspiration for a republic,
a form of government that puts lawfulness or morality ahead of advantage and tyrannical passion. In its respect for morality and the law, republican virtue breathes the spirit of chastity, a seemingly nonpolitical virtue of withdrawal. p. 3
Machiavelli refers to the rape of Lucretia as an "accident" [in the Aristotelian sense?], "error," and an "excess," and merely a pretext for Junius Brutus to overthrow the Tarquins.
Machiavelli suggests that Tarquinus Superbus could have survived had he had the wit and ruthlessness to sacrifice his son:
Butus's conspiracy to found the Roman republic could have been anticipated by a counterconspiracy to save the Tarquins. p. 4
Public morality (nomos) is what one is not permitted to laugh at in public,
Callimaco's plot is a conspiracy against society's conventions, and Machiavelli's play makes us laugh at those conventions. If we reflect, it inclines us to question them. p. 5
In the Discourses, Machiavelli says that Junius Brutus used the rape of Lucretia for the public purpose of founding the Roman republic. But he hints that Brutus also used the rape of Lucretia for the private purpose of making himself the founder of the Roman republic. (In Livy's original version of the event, Brutus's private motive is actually more explicit than in Machiavelli's account.) p. 5 [Note 18: Discourses 3. 2]
Machiavelli, Discourses 3.2: That It Is a Very Wise Thing to Simulate Craziness at the Right Time
There was never anyone so prudent nor esteemed so wise for any eminent work of his than Junius Brutus deserves to be held for his simulation of stupidity. Although Titus Livy expresses but one cause that induced him to such simulation, which was to be able to live more securely and to maintain his patrimony, nonetheless when his mode of proceeding is considered, it can be believed that he also simulated this to be less observed and to have more occasion for crushing the kings and freeing his own fatherland whenever opportunity would be given him. That he thought of this may be seen... when over the dead Lucretia he was the first among her father and husband and other relatives to draw the knife from the wound and to make the bystanders swear that they would never endure that in the future anyone should reign in Rome. Discourses 3.2 [following Livy, I 58-59]
In Mandragola, everybody gets what everybody wants:
These excellent results would not be possible if the appearances were not preserved, if Machiavelli did not reestablish the obedience of his characters to the law, in the wide sense of nomos, that they had violated. p. 6
One of his [Machiavelli's] lessons is that, contrary to the moral philosophers of our day, morality always comes in a specific version... if for no other reason than that morality needs respectability, and what is respectable varies. p. 6
The Mandragola presents a private conspiracy to "rape" Lucrezia that parallels and parodies Machiavelli's interpretation of the founding of the Roman republic. It explains why the overthrow of tyranny does not do away with tyranny but rather comes by means of tyranny and reinstates tyranny. Or is tyranny the wrong word for morality which keeps us from getting what we want? More moderately, one can say the play shows why it is necessary to overthrow an old law and its regime and to establish a new law and a new regime. It is not sufficient merely to overthrow. Machiavelli presents the case for freer sex in the Mandragola but emphatically not for a sexual revolution, in the current sense, that would overthrow all hypocritical notions of fidelity and shame. That is the meaning of the comic domestication of adultery in the play.
Yet the new regime is not the same as the old... there is a revolution in the new attitude toward trust that it portrays. p. 6-7
Trust is the theme of Mandragola. Ordinary trust is betrayed, but the trust of coconspirators holds:
When a thing does good for an individual, you have to believe that when you tell him about it, he will serve you with faith. Mandragola 1.1 [Callimaco]
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Question to ChatGPT: did Machiavelli write anywhere about suicide?
Niccolò Machiavelli did not focus extensively on the topic of suicide in his writings. However, there are a few references and discussions in his work that can be related to the concept.
"Discourses on Livy": In this work, Machiavelli briefly mentions the case of Lucretia, a Roman matron who committed suicide after being raped by Sextus Tarquinius. Her suicide played a significant role in the subsequent revolt against the Roman monarchy and the establishment of the Roman Republic. Machiavelli discusses the political implications and the impact of her act on public sentiment and political change, rather than the moral or philosophical aspects of suicide itself.
"The Prince": There is no direct discussion of suicide in "The Prince." The book focuses more on political power, statecraft, and the behavior of rulers.
Personal Context: While not a direct commentary on suicide, Machiavelli's personal letters and the context of his life, including his experiences of political downfall, imprisonment, and torture, may offer indirect insights into his views on despair and personal crisis. However, these sources do not provide explicit discussions on the act of suicide.
In summary, Machiavelli's references to suicide are limited and are more contextualized within broader political and historical narratives rather than as a focused philosophical or ethical inquiry.
My reply: I think he would reject suicide partly as living in a Christian culture even though he criticized the church, and partly because his sense of "virtu" is always seeking ways to survive and thrive in the face of fortune...
ChatGPT's response:
Your interpretation aligns well with the general understanding of Machiavelli's philosophy and worldview. Let's break it down further:
Christian Context: While Machiavelli often criticized the church and its political influence, he lived in a predominantly Christian society where suicide was largely condemned on religious grounds. This cultural context would naturally influence his views, even if he did not explicitly write about it. Christianity traditionally views suicide as a sin, a belief that would have been pervasive in Machiavelli's time.
Concept of Virtù: Machiavelli's concept of "virtù" (often translated as virtue, prowess, or strength) emphasizes the ability of individuals, particularly rulers, to shape their own destiny despite the unpredictable nature of fortune (fortuna). Virtù involves qualities such as courage, intelligence, decisiveness, and the will to act in order to maintain power and achieve great things. In this framework, suicide could be seen as an ultimate surrender to fortune, contradicting the proactive and resilient stance that virtù embodies.
Machiavelli’s emphasis on resilience and strategic action implies a strong inclination towards survival and the continuous struggle to thrive, even in adverse circumstances. This perspective suggests a rejection of suicide as it represents a relinquishment of control and a failure to confront and overcome challenges.
Supporting Quotes
Virtù and Fortuna: Machiavelli discusses the interplay of virtù and fortuna in "The Prince". He suggests that while fortune controls half of our actions, we control the other half through our actions and decisions. This highlights the importance of perseverance and strategic action:
Lucretia’s Suicide: In "Discourses on Livy," Machiavelli’s reference to Lucretia's suicide focuses on its political ramifications rather than moral considerations. This indicates his tendency to analyze actions through their political and social consequences rather than through ethical or religious lenses.
Conclusion
Machiavelli’s likely rejection of suicide can be inferred from his broader philosophical outlook. His emphasis on virtù as a means to confront and shape one's destiny, combined with the Christian cultural context of his time, supports the idea that he would view suicide as contrary to the proactive and resilient qualities he valued. While he did not explicitly write about suicide, these elements of his thought provide a coherent basis for understanding his likely stance on the matter.
My Reply: In this verse of Shakespeare's Rape of Lucrece, Brutus says that Collatine's "wretched wife" "mistook the matter". There may be a reference to Augustine, but I feel the influence of Machiavelli here as Brutus turns her suicide into an "occasion" for rebellion against the Tarquins.
Why, Collatine, is woe the cure for woe?
Do wounds help wounds, or grief help grievous deeds?
Is it revenge to give thyself a blow
For his foul act by whom thy fair wife bleeds?
Such childish humour from weak minds proceeds.
Thy wretched wife mistook the matter so,
To slay herself, that should have slain her foe.
ChatGPT's reply:
The passage you referenced from Shakespeare's "The Rape of Lucrece" indeed carries significant philosophical and political undertones. Let's delve into the layers of meaning and the potential influences at play, including Augustine and Machiavelli.
Analysis of the Passage
In this verse, Brutus criticizes Collatine for his reaction to his wife Lucrece's suicide. He questions the logic of using grief or self-inflicted harm as a response to tragedy, suggesting that such actions are irrational and ineffective. Brutus argues that Lucrece's suicide was a mistake ("mistook the matter") and that, instead of killing herself, she should have sought to kill her violator, Sextus Tarquinius.
Augustine’s Influence
Augustine discusses the morality of suicide in "The City of God." He argues against suicide, even in cases of extreme dishonor, and uses Lucretia's case as an example. Augustine contends that suicide cannot be justified, as it constitutes self-murder, which is a sin. He believes that Lucretia’s suicide, though driven by a desire to avoid dishonor, was misguided because it violated the moral law.
Machiavelli's Possible Influence
Machiavelli might not have directly discussed Lucretia's suicide in the same moralistic terms as Augustine, but his views on political action and virtù offer an interesting lens through which to interpret Brutus's words. According to Machiavelli, actions should be judged by their outcomes and effectiveness in achieving political goals. Lucretia's suicide, while noble in intent, did not directly contribute to the political upheaval that followed. However, Brutus's response to her death turned it into a catalyst for rebellion.
In "Discourses on Livy," Machiavelli refers to Lucretia’s death and its political aftermath, showing how it led to the expulsion of the Tarquins and the establishment of the Roman Republic. This aligns with Brutus's argument in the poem: rather than succumbing to grief, one should use the situation strategically to achieve greater political aims.
Synthesis
In Shakespeare's passage, Brutus’s criticism of Lucrece’s suicide reflects a Machiavellian approach to the situation. By turning her personal tragedy into a political opportunity, Brutus embodies the kind of virtù that Machiavelli praises. He transforms a personal act of despair into a public act of rebellion, thus aligning with Machiavelli’s idea that effective political action often involves using personal misfortunes for the greater good.
Conclusion
While Augustine's influence highlights the moral and theological implications of suicide, the Machiavellian perspective emphasizes the strategic use of personal tragedy for political ends. Brutus’s speech in "The Rape of Lucrece" can be seen as embodying both these influences. He critiques the futility of suicide from a rational and strategic standpoint, which resonates with Machiavellian virtù, and implicitly challenges the moral justification of such an act, reflecting Augustinian ethics. Thus, Brutus transforms Lucrece's death into a powerful motivator for rebellion, embodying the practical wisdom that Machiavelli would likely endorse.