The Baltic States During World War I: A Turbulent Path Toward Independence
Before the outbreak of the First World War, the territories we now know as Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia were all under the rule of the Russian Empire. As the war unfolded and the Russian Empire crumbled, the soldiers of these Baltic states fought not only in the global conflict but also in their own struggles for national sovereignty. This period marked a complex and tumultuous chapter in the history of the Baltic nations, characterized by shifting allegiances, occupation, revolutionary upheaval, and the burgeoning desire for independence.
The Historic Context: Russia’s Policies and Regional Dynamics
In the mid-19th century, the Russian Empire pursued an aggressive policy of Russification in the Baltic region, seeking to assimilate the local populations by promoting Russian language and culture. Russian became the primary language of education, and Russian settlers were encouraged to move into the area. Despite some limited autonomy granted to Estonia and Latvia, real power remained concentrated in the Russian elite and a small minority of Baltic Germans—landowners and traders who historically controlled the region's economic and social structures since the 12th century.
These Baltic Germans maintained a dominant position, governing through a system of serfdom and resisting efforts at integration and nationalist awakening among the native populations. Meanwhile, Lithuania, with its deep historical ties to Poland, was caught in the middle—many Lithuanians hesitated to forge ties with Poland, while Poles envisioned a union that included Lithuania as part of a broader Polish nation.
The Winds of Revolution: 1905 and the Rise of Nationalist Movements
The early 20th century brought significant upheaval, beginning with the 1905 Revolution. Baltic socialist and social democratic groups launched strikes and uprisings across major cities, reflecting a widespread desire for political reform and cultural self-determination. During this unrest, violence escalated: manor houses belonging to Baltic Germans were burned, and the Russian authorities responded with harsh martial law, imprisonments, and even executions. The revolutionaries, including figures like Karlis Ulmanis and Konstantin Päts—who would later lead Latvia and Estonia—went into hiding as the empire intensified its crackdown.
The Outbreak of World War I and Initial Baltic Patriotism
When WWI erupted in 1914, the Baltic populations—Latvians, Estonians, and Lithuanians—initially expressed loyalty to the Russian Empire. Their patriotic press celebrated their support, hoping that demonstrating loyalty might expedite demands for greater autonomy. Despite resentment towards Russian rule and anti-German sentiment—since Germany was considered an aggressor—the patriotic fervor was widespread.
During the war, hundreds of thousands from each Baltic nation were conscripted: approximately 60,000 Latvians, 120,000 Lithuanians, and 100,000 Estonians. As the Germans advanced into Russian-held territories, the situation deteriorated. By 1915, much of Lithuania and half of Latvia were occupied by German forces, who established military administrations focused on supporting the German war effort through requisitions, forced labor, and strict control.
Life Under Occupation and the Emergence of National Military Units
The occupied regions faced economic hardship as industrial equipment was evacuated eastward to prevent falling into enemy hands, leading to economic stagnation and a refugee crisis—around 700,000 citizens fled the Germans, seeking safety elsewhere, notably to Petrograd. Interestingly, Latvian refugees formed numerous support organizations, creating a sense of unity and fostering nationalist expression outside of Russian authority.
A notable development was the formation of the Latvian Riflemen in 1915—military units composed of volunteers who fought alongside the Russian army. They soon grew in size, numbering up to 40,000 by 1916, and proved to be highly effective fighters. Their morale and literacy facilitated effective communication, and they became symbols of Latvian patriotism and a potential nucleus for independence, despite following Russian military commands.
In Estonia, efforts to raise national military units were hampered by internal disagreement, and the region was already militarily defended. Meanwhile, in Lithuania, local leaders established the Taryba, a national council that expressed aspirations for self-governance—an effort tolerated by the Germans and pivotal in Lithuania’s later push for independence.
The Political Landscape: Movements and Power Struggles
War and occupation intensified political turmoil. Post-1917, after the Russian Revolution, newly elected national assemblies emerged: Estonia's Maapäev, which was predominantly conservative, and Latvia’s provincial council, which faced socialist opposition. The rise of socialist factions and the influence of the Bolsheviks created a polarized environment, with some factions advocating for full independence, others for autonomy within a Russian or Soviet framework.
The chaos of revolution led to increased support for leftist ideologies. The Bolsheviks, which had not previously been influential in the Baltic, gained traction, especially among sailors and soldiers. In Latvia, Bolshevik influence resulted in a Soviet government forming there in 1917, with Latvian Bolsheviks and Riflemen pivotal in supporting Lenin’s revolution. The Latvian Riflemen, in particular, played a significant role in early Soviet consolidation, with historians suggesting they were instrumental in backing Lenin’s rise.
Estonia experienced a different trajectory; the Bolsheviks struggled to gain widespread support and alienated many locals. The Maapäev in Estonia began asserting itself as an independent entity, resisting Bolshevik efforts to consolidate power.
The Dissolution of Russian Authority and German Plans
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 marked a turning point, as Soviet Russia signed peace with Germany, ceding control of the Baltic territories. Germany envisioned establishing a Kulturpolitik—a policy of Germanization—aimed at resettling Germans and integrating the Baltics into a German-dominated cultural sphere. Plans included making Latvia and Lithuania part of a German protectorate, governed by Baltic Germans and with support for nationalist suppression.
However, Germany’s military setbacks and the decline of its war effort soon made such visions impractical. Despite recognizing Lithuanian independence, the Germans prioritized military control over genuine state-building, and the German civil administration in Lithuania recognized a declaration of independence led by the Taryba. The Germans proposed a constitutional monarchy, installing a German prince as king, but this was never realized.
By November 1918, with Germany on the brink of defeat, the political landscape in the Baltics was still filled with confusion and uncertainty. Nonetheless, the independence movements, fueled by nationalist aspirations and the collapse of Russian authority, laid an essential foundation for future statehood. The region's path to independence was fraught with internal divisions, external pressures, and the lingering scars of occupation and war.
The Baltic States' resilience and rising nationalist sentiments during this tumultuous period showcased their indomitable spirit—a spirit that would eventually lead them to sovereignty and the formation of independent nations.
This overview only scratches the surface of the complex history of the Baltic states during WWI. Their journey from being part of the Russian Empire to establishing independent nations is a story of courage, conflict, and the relentless pursuit of self-determination.
For more detailed episodes on related topics like the Czech Legion in WWI, follow us and stay tuned for upcoming explorations of this fascinating era.
Part 1/15:
The Baltic States During World War I: A Turbulent Path Toward Independence
Before the outbreak of the First World War, the territories we now know as Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia were all under the rule of the Russian Empire. As the war unfolded and the Russian Empire crumbled, the soldiers of these Baltic states fought not only in the global conflict but also in their own struggles for national sovereignty. This period marked a complex and tumultuous chapter in the history of the Baltic nations, characterized by shifting allegiances, occupation, revolutionary upheaval, and the burgeoning desire for independence.
The Historic Context: Russia’s Policies and Regional Dynamics
Part 2/15:
In the mid-19th century, the Russian Empire pursued an aggressive policy of Russification in the Baltic region, seeking to assimilate the local populations by promoting Russian language and culture. Russian became the primary language of education, and Russian settlers were encouraged to move into the area. Despite some limited autonomy granted to Estonia and Latvia, real power remained concentrated in the Russian elite and a small minority of Baltic Germans—landowners and traders who historically controlled the region's economic and social structures since the 12th century.
Part 3/15:
These Baltic Germans maintained a dominant position, governing through a system of serfdom and resisting efforts at integration and nationalist awakening among the native populations. Meanwhile, Lithuania, with its deep historical ties to Poland, was caught in the middle—many Lithuanians hesitated to forge ties with Poland, while Poles envisioned a union that included Lithuania as part of a broader Polish nation.
The Winds of Revolution: 1905 and the Rise of Nationalist Movements
Part 4/15:
The early 20th century brought significant upheaval, beginning with the 1905 Revolution. Baltic socialist and social democratic groups launched strikes and uprisings across major cities, reflecting a widespread desire for political reform and cultural self-determination. During this unrest, violence escalated: manor houses belonging to Baltic Germans were burned, and the Russian authorities responded with harsh martial law, imprisonments, and even executions. The revolutionaries, including figures like Karlis Ulmanis and Konstantin Päts—who would later lead Latvia and Estonia—went into hiding as the empire intensified its crackdown.
The Outbreak of World War I and Initial Baltic Patriotism
Part 5/15:
When WWI erupted in 1914, the Baltic populations—Latvians, Estonians, and Lithuanians—initially expressed loyalty to the Russian Empire. Their patriotic press celebrated their support, hoping that demonstrating loyalty might expedite demands for greater autonomy. Despite resentment towards Russian rule and anti-German sentiment—since Germany was considered an aggressor—the patriotic fervor was widespread.
Part 6/15:
During the war, hundreds of thousands from each Baltic nation were conscripted: approximately 60,000 Latvians, 120,000 Lithuanians, and 100,000 Estonians. As the Germans advanced into Russian-held territories, the situation deteriorated. By 1915, much of Lithuania and half of Latvia were occupied by German forces, who established military administrations focused on supporting the German war effort through requisitions, forced labor, and strict control.
Life Under Occupation and the Emergence of National Military Units
Part 7/15:
The occupied regions faced economic hardship as industrial equipment was evacuated eastward to prevent falling into enemy hands, leading to economic stagnation and a refugee crisis—around 700,000 citizens fled the Germans, seeking safety elsewhere, notably to Petrograd. Interestingly, Latvian refugees formed numerous support organizations, creating a sense of unity and fostering nationalist expression outside of Russian authority.
Part 8/15:
A notable development was the formation of the Latvian Riflemen in 1915—military units composed of volunteers who fought alongside the Russian army. They soon grew in size, numbering up to 40,000 by 1916, and proved to be highly effective fighters. Their morale and literacy facilitated effective communication, and they became symbols of Latvian patriotism and a potential nucleus for independence, despite following Russian military commands.
Part 9/15:
In Estonia, efforts to raise national military units were hampered by internal disagreement, and the region was already militarily defended. Meanwhile, in Lithuania, local leaders established the Taryba, a national council that expressed aspirations for self-governance—an effort tolerated by the Germans and pivotal in Lithuania’s later push for independence.
The Political Landscape: Movements and Power Struggles
Part 10/15:
War and occupation intensified political turmoil. Post-1917, after the Russian Revolution, newly elected national assemblies emerged: Estonia's Maapäev, which was predominantly conservative, and Latvia’s provincial council, which faced socialist opposition. The rise of socialist factions and the influence of the Bolsheviks created a polarized environment, with some factions advocating for full independence, others for autonomy within a Russian or Soviet framework.
Part 11/15:
The chaos of revolution led to increased support for leftist ideologies. The Bolsheviks, which had not previously been influential in the Baltic, gained traction, especially among sailors and soldiers. In Latvia, Bolshevik influence resulted in a Soviet government forming there in 1917, with Latvian Bolsheviks and Riflemen pivotal in supporting Lenin’s revolution. The Latvian Riflemen, in particular, played a significant role in early Soviet consolidation, with historians suggesting they were instrumental in backing Lenin’s rise.
Estonia experienced a different trajectory; the Bolsheviks struggled to gain widespread support and alienated many locals. The Maapäev in Estonia began asserting itself as an independent entity, resisting Bolshevik efforts to consolidate power.
Part 12/15:
The Dissolution of Russian Authority and German Plans
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 marked a turning point, as Soviet Russia signed peace with Germany, ceding control of the Baltic territories. Germany envisioned establishing a Kulturpolitik—a policy of Germanization—aimed at resettling Germans and integrating the Baltics into a German-dominated cultural sphere. Plans included making Latvia and Lithuania part of a German protectorate, governed by Baltic Germans and with support for nationalist suppression.
Part 13/15:
However, Germany’s military setbacks and the decline of its war effort soon made such visions impractical. Despite recognizing Lithuanian independence, the Germans prioritized military control over genuine state-building, and the German civil administration in Lithuania recognized a declaration of independence led by the Taryba. The Germans proposed a constitutional monarchy, installing a German prince as king, but this was never realized.
The Path Toward Independence: Turmoil and Hope
Part 14/15:
By November 1918, with Germany on the brink of defeat, the political landscape in the Baltics was still filled with confusion and uncertainty. Nonetheless, the independence movements, fueled by nationalist aspirations and the collapse of Russian authority, laid an essential foundation for future statehood. The region's path to independence was fraught with internal divisions, external pressures, and the lingering scars of occupation and war.
The Baltic States' resilience and rising nationalist sentiments during this tumultuous period showcased their indomitable spirit—a spirit that would eventually lead them to sovereignty and the formation of independent nations.
Part 15/15:
This overview only scratches the surface of the complex history of the Baltic states during WWI. Their journey from being part of the Russian Empire to establishing independent nations is a story of courage, conflict, and the relentless pursuit of self-determination.
For more detailed episodes on related topics like the Czech Legion in WWI, follow us and stay tuned for upcoming explorations of this fascinating era.